What is Bilingualism?

S. B. Gardi Deartment Of  English M.K.Bhavnagar University

Written by:- Dodiya Asha B

          
Course No:-12

Email Id :- ashadodiya15@gmail.com

Enrollment no :- PG15101012

What is Bilingualism?

 

Bilingualism simply means the ability to communicate in two languages. English is not the native language in India. English Language had become an official language in India therefore English is not the native language for Indians. English is the Second Language in India. India is a multilingual country fully diversified with multiculturalism. Agnes Lam refers to bilingualism the phenomenon of competence and communication in two languages.

What is Bi-dialectal ?

Bi-dialectalism refer to phenomenon where by 

someone  can communicate in more than two 

dialects of the same language  English and Gujarat 

language has got several dialects like , kathiyavadi , 

Mahesani, and Amdavadi for a Gujarati speaker .







What is Bi-scriptural?


 Bi-scriptural competence is the ability to read more 

than one of the same language English The Gujarati 

language can be written in there are three in the 

new simplified script and Traditional complex script. 

A final definitional issue concerns the relationship 

between Bilingualism and Multilingualism.

Multilingualism :-



 Multilingualism based on various combination of 

bilingual competencies. for example. English
 
Individuals in a Multilingual society could be 

Bilingual in the Dominant and another non - 

Dominant language .

What is Non - Dominant Language?
 

The non - dominant language may very for 

individuals. multilingual India the three language 

formula, the regional language and other mother 

tongue. Hindi or another Indian language . English 

as European language. the bilingual individual is 

now recognized as The ultimate locus of contact and 

accepted as one of the situation.

Bilingual Education :-

 

The bilingual education using both language are 

media of instruction and or having bilingualism as a 

goal of education.

There are two models are bilingual education:-
 


         

         1) Additive Bilingualism .
 

         2) Subtractive bilingualism .

1) Additive bilingualism

if becoming bilingual helps learners to develop 

positive attitudes to their native language and 

themselves, the phenomena is called " Additive 

Bilingualism "

2) Subtractive bilingualism :-

if. they develop negative attitudes towards their own 


languages in the process of becoming bilingual, than 

it is called" subtractive bilingualism"
 

There are three types of bilingual memory systems:-
 

1) coexistent bilingualism
 

2) Merged bilingualism
 
3) subordinative bilingualism.

Bilingual Individuals:

• Bilingual individual is someone who has the ability to communicate two languages alternatively, even when one language is being used in a monolingual context. (Bialystok, 2007, 2010)
• Such an ability or psychological state of an individual has been referred to as 'bilinguality'. (Hamers and Blanc 2000)

Bilingual individuals don't find it difficult to communicate in two languages and switch between two languages alternatively.

Bilingual Society:

 

A bilingual society is one in which two languages are used in communication. In bilingual society it is possible to have large number of monolinguals provided that they are enough bilinguals to perform the functions requiring bilingual competence in that society.

Multilingual society is a society which has more than one significant language group. This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Multilingual society. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

• Individual Bilingualism
  
  
  
   

Individual psychological state of mind who uses two languages for communication purpose.

Multilingualism usually refers to a speaker’s knowledge and efficient use of three or more languages while bilingualism is the sociolinguist's term to describe a speaker’s knowledge and use of more than one, i.e. two, languages - their mother tongue and an additional language. However, multilingualism and bilingualism are often used interchangeably and bilingualism might also indicate that a speaker knows and uses more than two languages. Thus, bilingualism means the mastering of two or more languages.

A communicatively competent multilingual speaker is able to code-switch between the varieties he or she knows and uses in accordance with the demands of different social situations.
A communicatively competent multilingual speaker has both active and passive knowledge of the language varieties he or she uses. In other words, this speaker can understand (= passive knowledge) certain varieties in the speech and writing of others and he or she can actively use his or her own speech or writing abilities in the respective varieties (= active knowledge). However, multilingual speakers often do not have identical competence in all the languages they know.
The opposite of multilingualism is monolingualism which describes a speaker who knows and uses one language only – his or her native language.
A person with monolingual competence is called a monolingual. A person with multilingual/bilingual competence is called a multilingual or bilingual.

• Societal Bilingualism
  
   
  
  
   

In societal bilingualism community and that number of individual can use two languages.

'Societal bilingualism' is a broad term used to refer to any kind of bilingualism or multilingualism at a level of social organization beyond the individual or nuclear family. By this definition, almost every country and region of the world has some degree of 'societal bilingualism'.

Monoliguals :-


 


 

Those who Speaks only one of the tow language used in society.

Monolingual is a program for removing unnecessary language resources from macOS, in order to reclaim several hundred megabytes of disk space. It requires a 64-bit capable Intel-based Mac and at least macOS 10.11 (El Capitan).

I don't know about you, but I use my computer in only one (human) language — English. And I'm willing to bet that you do too, albeit perhaps not English. So why do you have a bunch of localization files for the operating system filling up your hard drive? Enter Monolingual — a handy utility for reclaiming your space for more useful things… like international mp3 files, email or whatever you like.

Several Question Have been asked :-

Monolingual or Communicative norms :

Do we measure the competencies of bilingual persons against the respective competencies of monolingual persons ?

If so we end up with labeling some bilinguals as perfect bilinguals and other as imperfect bilinguals. Another approach is not to apply monolingual norms in measuring bilingual abilities but just to evaluate the communicative competence of the bilingual as a Whole ( Grosjean 1992

 

Relative Competencies in two languages :

Is the bilingual better at one language than the other ?

If so the person has dominant bilinguality . If he or she is equally good at both language then the term balanced bilingual is used .


Domains :  can someone be considered a bilingual if he or she can only function in one language in a few domains (e.g. home ) ?

Essentially the person only has the registers or varieties of language associated with particular  domains for different languages . his or her communicative abilities in one language complement those of the other. I would call this complementary bilinguality.

Components:

Can linguistic competence be subdivided into smaller components ?
for e.g can someone be considered a bilingual if he or she can comprehend both two languages but speak and write only one of them ? 

In such circumstances, the person can be described as a receptive bilingual having the ability to understand both languages . Otherwise .the ability to produce both languages in some manner is usually assumed when a person is identified as a bilingual.

Bidialectal and Bircriptural abilities are also important for individuals .

Bidialectalism refers to the phenomenon where  by someone can communication in more than two dialects of same language.

Bircriptural:

Bircriptural competence is the ability to read more than one script and the traditional complex script.

Relationship between Bilingualism and Multilingualism:
Discussions are bilingualism often include multiligual context because in many multilingual societies there are more bilinguals than multilingual individuals. There are many patterns of multilingualism based on various combinations of bilingual competences

For example: Individuals in our multilingual society could be bilingual in the dominant language may vary for individuals. Increasingly, however with the cognition that many societies are multilingual. Multilingualism is often discussed as a phenomenon in its own right.

Approaches:

Linguistic Approach: Linguists differ in the importance they accord to bilingualism. They study the structure and development of the two languages.

Socio linguistics:

It is a study as a whole. It looks at how cultures and social groups affect language performance.

• Language Choice
• Language Planning

Psycho linguistics:

It is a study of the psychological bases of bilinguals' 

language. It largely depends on language performance 

and language competence.

Neuro linguistics:

is a study of the relationship between language and 

the brain.

This article is about the academic field of 

neurolinguistics. For the pseudoscientific 

psychotherapy and communications model, see

Dominant Language and Non-dominant language:

 

Dominant language is a language with power or 

status. 

Non dominant language may vary for individuals.

A compound bilingual is an individual who learns two 

languages in the same environment so that he/she 

acquires one notion with two verbal 

expressions.Simultaneous Bilingualism: it refers to the 

acquisition of one language after another. 

Bilingual Education:

Education using both languages as medium of 

instructions and/or having bilingualism as a goal of 

education.

Compound bilinguals:

A compound bilingual is an individual who learns two

 languages in the same environment so that he/she

 acquires one notion with two verbal expressions.

Compound bilingualism has one semantic system but 

 two linguistic codes. Usually it refers to someone 

whose two languages are learned at the same time 

often in the same context..

Reference
http://valajyotsna.blogspot.in/2016/08/bilingualism-by-agnes-lam.html,http://davemayuri201416.blogspot.in/2015/11/mysem3-presentations.html,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism,

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Nightingale, Psyche and Autumn Annayalis

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                                                                  S. B. Gardi DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

M.K.BHAVNAGAR University

Written by:- Dodiya Asha B

Course No:-05

                              Course Name:-

Enrollment no :-

Topic:Nightingale, Psyche and   Autumn   Annayalis

 Ode on a Grecian Urn:

                “Ode on a Grecian urn” is a poem written by the English romantic poet John Keats in May 1819 and published anonymously in January 1820, number 15 Issus of the magazine Annals of the fine arts. The poem is one of several “Great odes of 1819” which include “ode to a Indolence”, “ode to a Melancholy”,“ Ode to Psyche”, “Ode to a Nightingale” Keats found earlier forms of poetry unsatisfactory for his purpose, and the collection represented a new development of the ode form.

                                 Ode to a Nightingale

                                Ode to a Psyche

                                Ode to a Autumn

                        Ode to a Nightingale is a poem by John Keats written in May 1819 in their the garden of the Spaniards Inn, hump stead, London, or according to kea’s friend Charles Arbitrage Brown, under a plum tree in the garden of kea’s house, also in Hampstead. “Ode to a Nightingale” is a personal poem that describes kea’s journey in to the state of negative capability.

   Ode to a Nightingale: 

                            

              “Ode to a Nightingale” is the longest of the 1819 odes with 8 stanza containing 10 lines each. The poem begins by describing the state of the poet, using negative statements to intensify the description of the poet’s physical state such as “numb less pains” and not through envy of thy happy lot.

                    While the ode is written “to a Nightingale” the emphasis of the first line is placed upon the narrator rather than the bird, and Helen vender suggests that the negation of the reader as a party in the discourse happens just as the song of the nightingale becomes the “Voice of Pure self expression”.

                              In the third stanza, the poet asks the nightingale to “Fade Far away”, casting it off just as the narrator in “Ode to Indolence” rejects the love, ambition, and poesy and the poet in “Ode on a Grecian Urn” banishes the figures on the urn to silence.

                   In the fourth stanza, the poet sates that he will   fly to the nightingale rather than it to him, moving upon the “wings of poesy”, which leaves Walter Jackson bate to believe that while the poet intends to identify with the bird by describing the real identification in the narrative exists between the poet and his perceptions of the nightingale’s song. In its closing, the poem questions whether the bird’s song has been real or part of a dream.

                    “Was it a vision, or a waking dream?

                     Fled that music:-do I wake or sleep?”

 And the theme of imagination once again arises as the poet appears, according to timothy Hilton, unable to distinguish between his own artistic imagination and the song which he believes to have it in to action. 

                The nightingale described within the poem experiences a type of death but does not actually die. Instead the songbird is capable of living through its song which is a fate that humans cannot expect. The contrast between the immortal nightingale and mortal man, sitting in his garden, is made all the more acute by an effort, of the imagination.

                   The presence of weather is noticeable in the poem, as spring came early in 1819, bringing nightingales all over the heath.

                     Many critics favor “ode to a Nightingale” for its themes but some believe that it is structurally flawed because the poem sometimes strays from its main idea. the exact date of “Ode to a Nightingale” as well as “Ode on Melancholy” and “Ode on a Grecian Urn”, is unknown, as kea’s dated all as May 1819. However, he worked on the four poems together and there is a unity in both their stanza forms and their themes. 

                                 The extorter the poems were written in also unknown, but they from a sequence within their structures. While keat’s was writing “Ode on a Grecian Urn” and other poems, Brown transcribed copies of the poems and submitted then to Richard Woodhouse.      During this time, Benjamin Haydon, keat’s friend, was given a copy of “Ode to a Nightingale”, and he shared the poem with the editor of the annals of the fine arts, James Elmes. Elmes paid keat’s a small sum of money, and the poem published in the July issue.

         Ode to Psyche:-

              Amor and psyche, sculpted in marble during the late 18th century. “Ode to psyche” is a poem by John Keats written in spring 1819. The poem is the first of his 1819 odes, which include “Ode on a Grecian urn” and“Ode to a Nightingale”.

                                 “Ode to psyche” is an experiment in the genre, and keat’s attempt at an expanded version of the sonnet format that describes a dramatic scene. The poem serves as an important departure from keat’s early poems, which frequently describe an escape into the pleasant realms of one’s imagination. Keat’s uses the imagination to show the narrator’s inter to resurrect psyche and reincarnate himself into Eros. 

                             Keat’s attempts this by dedicating “Untraded region” of his mind to the worship of the neglected goddess. “Ode to Psyche”, keat’s 67 line ode, was the first of his major odes of 1819.although keat’s spent time considering the language of the poem, the choice of wording and phrasing   is below that found within his late works, including Hyperion or the odes followed. “ode to psyche” is important because it is keat’s first attempt at an altered sonnet from that would include longer more lines and would end with a message or truth.

                        Also, he did not want the poem to be based simply around that message, so he incorporated narrative elements, such as plot and characters, along with a preface to the poem of these additions, the use of a preface was discontinued in his next odes along with the removal of details that describe setting within the poems; they would only be implied within the poems; they would only be implied within thawing with burden core on theme of life.

            Autumn has been personofiedand   compared to women farmer sitting carefree or the granary floor; and corn on its head. 

   

                    Ode to Autumn:-

            "To Autumn" describes, in its three stanzas, three different aspects of the season: its fruitfulness, its labour and its ultimate decline. Through the stanzas there is a progression from early autumn to mid autumn and then to the heralding of winter. Parallel to this, the poem depicts the day turning from morning to afternoon and into dusk.

               The first stanza of the poem represents Autumn as involved with the promotion of natural processes, growth and ultimate maturation, two forces in opposition in nature, but together creating the impression that the season will not end.  In this stanza the fruits are still ripening and the buds still opening in the warm weather. Stuart Sperry says that Keats emphasizes the tactile sense here, suggested by the imagery of growth and gentle motion: swelling, bending and plumping

                        The image of a goddess portrays creativity and shows Keats awe at the power of nature. "Half reaped..." this emphasizes the languid atmosphere of the stanza. Keats refers to flowers in line 18; this is odd as one wouldn't normally associate with autumn. This is something that is maintained throughout the poem; Keats breaks the stereotypical or clichéd picture of spring and brings in a new suggestion that in fact autumn is far more romantic and important. 

                             Keats portrays autumn as the beautiful goddess suggesting a close link with nature. The image of a goddess portrays creativity and shows Keats awe at the power of nature. "Half reaped..." this emphasizes the languid atmosphere of the stanza. Keats refers to flowers in line 18; this is odd as one wouldn't normally associate with autumn.

 Conclusion

                             In conclusion, John Keats, as a member of the Romantic Movement, viewed nature in a positive light. This is demonstrated throughout the poem by a number of positive metaphors and similes for nature. The most obvious metaphor being that of the goddess in stanza two who enjoys the changing season to such an extent it is compared to being under the influence of opium.

               However this positivity is not carried into the last stanza as Keats also views autumn as a time of decay as well as fruition. Keats writes that "small gnats mourn", while gnats only represent an almost insignificant aspect of nature, they could be said to represent much of nature which dies in autumn.

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Themes in Oliver Twist

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                                        S. B. Gardi DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

M.K.BHAVNAGAR University

Written by:- Dodiya Asha B

Course No:-06

                                                                                          Email Id :- ashadodiya15@gmail.com

Enrollment no :- PG15101012

       Topic:-  Themes in Oliver Twist

Introduction:

                                                                                                          Charles Dickens  Oliver Twist is a novel written by Charles Dickens. This is his second novel. He was born on 7 February 1812 at England (Ham and died at just the age of 58 on 9 June 1870 at England . He was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the best characters for his fiction and that is why he is known as the greatest novelist of the Victorian period. He is best known for his humor, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His main focus was on society’s evil things like criminality, orphan houses, work houses, money, class discrimination, poverty etc.

      Here are his some notable works:

      1.   The Pickwick Papers

      2.  Oliver Twist

      3.   A Christmas Carol

      4.  David Copperfield

      5.  Bleak House

      6.  Hard Times

      7.   Little Dorati

      8 . A Tale of Two Cities

      9 . Great Expectation

Plot ‘O Overview of Oliver Twist:

            “Oliver Twist”  In best example of the Victorian age because this novel reflects this era very well. As above mentioned, that during this time the number of prostitutes was increasing and that is why with this orphan houses were also increasing. The story starts with the birth of the hero of the novel Oliver Twist. Soon after giving birth to Oliver, his mother dies. She gave birth to Oliver in a workhouse named ‘Parish Workhouse’. Then the doctor comes and noticed that she has not worn any wedding ring. So, here the identity of Oliver is sealed.

                   When he reaches to London he meets a boy of his age named Jack Dawkins. He promises him to give shelter and will provide enough food and then he takes him to Fagin and the gang. It turns out that Fagin is a career criminal who trains orphan boys to pick pockets for him. After a few days of training, Oliver is sent on a pickpocket.

                   Then Mr. Brownlow and Mayfly they both reunited for Oliver and then it is revealed by Mayfly that Monks is half-brother of Oliver and Rose is the younger sister of Oliver’s mother Agnes Fleming means Rose was the aunt of Oliver. Oliver’s father, Mr. Ledford, was unhappily married to a wealthy woman and had an affair with Oliver’s mother, Agnes Fleming. Monks has been pursuing Oliver all along in the hopes of ensuring that his half-brother is deprived of his share of the family inheritance.

 Society & Class:

               The major theme of this novel is society and class. This theme is the central theme in all most all Dickens’ novels. In this novel Dickens shows how the Society is careless about the orphan children. He also shows that how the upper class is superior and the carelessness for the lower class.

                  Through this passage it is clear that this is situation of Oliver’s birth time. At this point many questions comes in our mind that who is he, he could be anybody, belonging from any class but Charles portrait his character as a parish boy and just after his mother died, means he is now an orphan child. It shows how superficial class distinction is.

Identity:

                          The second major theme which I found one of the main themes is ‘The theme of Identity’. Here we can also connect the second incidence of Oliver’s life that how Oliver’s name is thrust on him almost arbitrarily by Mr. Bumble. And if we think all the other minor characters of this novel that all the orphan children. They don’t know where their parents are, or even who their parents are. This novel is all about mistaken identities, changed names etc.

                                                                          
 "What’s your name, you hardened scoundrel?" thundered Mr. Fang. "Officer, what’s his name?"

"He says his name’s Tom White, your worship," said this kind-hearted thief-taker.

               This situation comes when Oliver was presented in the court, because people think that he was picking the pocket of Mr. Brownlow, but we know the truth as a reader. More with the names here’s yet another random person making up names for Oliver. He was the lawyer of the court in which Oliver was presented.

Criminality:

                    During 1830s, when Dickens’ was writing crime was one of the major problem in society. He depicts criminality of London very well in this novel. He shows that it was the needs of poor people to live their life they have to steal something for their livelihood. It was the need of those poor people to survive. He also wanted to show how external influences created criminal behavior as much or more than natural criminal urges.

"What a fine thing capital punishment is! Dead men never repent; dead men never bring awkward stories to light. The prospect of the gallows, too, makes them hardy and bold. Ah, it’s a fine thing for the trade! Five of them strung up in a row, and none left to play booty or turn white-livered."

                               These are the lines spoken by Fagin, who is depicted as a villain or we can say the master who taught pick pocketing to the orphan children. We can say that here he is the criminal.

Poverty:

  v

                  Poverty was another one of the major problem of society during those days. Of Course this theme is related with the theme of ‘Society & Class’. With ‘Oliver Twist’ he doesn’t shy away from depicting the conditions of the poor people in all their misery with gritty realism. Dickens is also very concerned in showing just how miserable the lower classes really were.

                In this passage it is clearly written that the poor people were paid less though they work hard. And that is why the poor people become or remain poor and the rich people become or remain poor always.

Religion:

  

                       Organized, institutionalized religion – especially the Church of England – is shown by Dickens in this novel. Dickens himself was Anglican but he felt like the Church was too impersonal and institutionalized and didn’t do enough to take care of the poor and miserable folks who turned to the Church for help.

                                                                                
                   "I hope you say your prayers every night," said another gentleman in a gruff voice, "and pray for the people who feed you, and take care of you, like a Christian."

                     In the direct way but indirectly many times religion is mentioned. For example, in the movie of this novel it was shown that in the workhouse on the wall everywhere it was written that `God is Good’ and ‘God is everywhere’.  So that people don’t  even think of rebel or of committing suicide.

Literature & Writing:

                     

                 We can say that this theme is represented by Dickens in an indirect way. Literature and writing is theme in which the writer takes a pause to comment on any situation in the novel or on any character. Dickens uses this theme or technique very well in this novel. Though he is able to tell his story and his name he never allowed for speaking. Or we can also say that reference of books is also one of the meanings of this theme.

"There are a good many books, are there not, my boy?" said Mr. Brownlow.

"A great number, sir,"

“ replied Oliver; "

“I never saw so many."

               "You shall read them if you behave well," said the old gentleman kindly; "and you will like that, better than looking at the outsides,– that is, in some cases, because there are books of which the backs and covers are by far the best parts.


                   Oliver considered a little while, and at last said he should think it would be much better thing to be a bookseller.
So, it is clear from this dialogue between Oliver and Mr. Brownlow that Mr. Brownlow is asking about books to Oliver. We can expect what the answer must be from an orphan child who never gets such type of good behavior from anyone in the society. It also shows the importance of the literature in our life.

Contrasting Regions:

                       The words itself shows that combination of two opposite things at a time. This theme of contrasting region is very well explored by Dickens in his this novel. The city London is the best example of this. Once Oliver was at a village and then again at London. His life is shown as a pendulum swing between the urban life and city life. When we think of urban life innocence come in our mind and when we think of city cruelty comes in our mind. These all things are shown by Dickens very well.

                 In this whole passage the word ‘labyrinth’ is most important. Dickens has used this word intensely here. The meaning of this is ‘low’, ‘dark’, and ‘narrow’. Means a place where you once entered then there is no way for return or for escape. By using this word Dickens creates a tension in readers mind that there are possibilities that may be now Oliver will choose the wrong path means Fagin and the gang.    

Fate & Free Will:

             Here again we can see the combination of two opposite things. For some characters dickens has created that space so that they can follow their free will and for some characters he has not even gave space so that they can follow their free will. Here fate plays vital role, destination as well as the city in which they live, their social class, and the system of justice and religion. Some characters gave up against fate.

                     In this passage Dickens gave some space to Oliver to choose between good and evil. It is the time for Oliver of realization to choose which path. To be bad or good is now in the hands of Oliver himself. Means here the free will of Oliver may work. But the characters like Nancy they never allowed by the author to follow their free will.    

Conclusion:

              ‘Oliver Twist’ is one of the best novels of Victorian time. We will find many Victorian characteristics of this time depicted by Charles Dickens. These are the based themes of this novel. There are many other themes also which is shown by Dickens very well. The themes like Good vs. Evil also can be one of the major themes of this novel because here in this novel Dickens has given the touch of morality. The failure of Society is also one of the main themes of this novel

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